The Neuropsychology of Men by Charles M. Zaroff & Rik Carl D’Amato

Author:Charles M. Zaroff & Rik Carl D’Amato
Language: eng
Format: epub
Publisher: Springer US, Boston, MA

Endocrinology

Studies in neuroscience have explored associations between antisocial behaviors and disorders and common hormones such as cortisol (a glucocorticoid stress reactivity hormone) and testosterone (a sex hormone that is part of the hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal [HPG] axis). Numerous authors have noted that hormone level variations are associated with behavioral differences (Cohen-Bendahan et al., 2005; Dorn et al., 2009; Kornienko, Clemans, Out, & Granger, 2014; McBurnett, Lahey, Rathouz, & Loeber, 2000; Pajer et al., 2006; Shoal, Giancola, & Kilrillova, 2003). Though it has been suggested that testosterone may be linked to social dominance rather than aggression specifically (Archer, 2006), studies of both testosterone and cortisol show consistent relationships to aggression across genders and across development. In children, hormones including testosterone and cortisol have been consistently associated with aggressive behavior, and diagnoses of CD and ODD (Cohen-Bendahan et al., 2005; Dorn et al., 2009; McBurnett et al., 2000; Pajer et al., 2006; Shoal et al., 2003). In adult populations, similar findings relating hormones to aggression, antisocial personality, and psychopathy have been reported, and gender differences can be observed (Aluja & García, 2007; Banks & Dabbs, 1996; Dabbs, Carr, Frady, & Riad, 1995; Dabbs, Frady, Carr, & Besch, 1987; Dabbs & Hargrove, 1997; Dabbs, Karpas, Dyomina, Juechter, & Roberts, 2002; Dabbs, Ruback, Frady, & Hopper, 1988; Glenn, Raine, Schug, Gao, & Granger, 2010; Stålenheim, Eriksson, von Knorring, & Wide, 1998; van Honk & Schutter, 2007).

Cortisol. Studies have consistently shown that reduced cortisol levels are correlated with increased aggression in both boys and girls (Dorn et al., 2009; McBurnett et al., 2000; Pajer et al., 2006; Shoal et al., 2003). In a study by McBurnett et al. (2000), researchers found significant relationships between reduced levels of cortisol and aggressive conduct disorder and peer aggression. In addition, boys who had childhood onset CD (i.e., before age 10) had reduced cortisol levels compared to boys with adolescent onset CD. However, in another study specifically with boys at high risk for antisocial behavior, no correlations were found between cortisol and CD (McBurnett et al., 2005). Using longitudinal data, Shoal et al. (2003) found that cortisol levels measured at age 10–12 had a negative correlation with later aggressive behavior at age 15–17. However, the relationship between low level of cortisol and aggression could be mediated by the personality variable of self-control.

Studies have also shown that decreased levels of cortisol also relate to aggression in girls. However, these studies have examined the ratio of cortisol to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA; an endogenous steroid hormone) rather than cortisol alone, as antisocial girls are frequently characterized by low morning cortisol but high DHEA levels—making cortisol/DHEA ratios a more suitable way to measure this hormone (Pajer et al., 2006). Girls with CD have lower cortisol/DHEA ratios than normal controls (Pajer et al., 2006). Moreover, specifically within CD girls, those presenting with aggressive CD had lower cortisol/DHEA ratios than girls with nonaggressive CD (Pajer et al., 2006). Dorn et al. (2009) compared cortisol levels in boys and girls with and without CDD and ODD, and found that cortisol levels were lower in children with ODD than healthy comparisons.

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